Tšepo Nkwe Malumba

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Joseph Tšepo Nkwe Malumba, often referred to as Tata Tšepo in Akara, was a the first Prime Minister of Akara and a major leader in the movement for Akara's independence from Japan and later British military occupation, then continued to fight for equal rights for the country's Bantu population. During Japanese colonial rule, he served as Chairman of the Party for Complete Akaran Independence, a banned political party which resisted Japanese rule in the country. In 1946, he then led the Christmas Uprising against the British military administration, and while the uprising failed, it pressured Britain into granting Akara's independence from Japan in 1947. Following Akaran independence, Malumba became an influential member in the All People's Revolution Party, a democratic-socialist political party. Due to his political activism, which usually went against the ruling authority, Malumba often found himself in prison.

Early Life

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Tšepo Nkwe Malumba was born in the city of Antananarivo, capital of the Merina Kingdom, in 1882. His father was a former cowherd who had moved to the city to become a blacksmith, while his mother sold eggs at local markets. Malumba had seven siblings, two of which died from malaria.

Malumba began attending a missionary school at the age 11. He was the only person in his family to receive an education, as his two brothers assisted his father in blacksmithing, and his sisters were intended to be married off. Malumba took a penchant to reading, and would often borrow books from school to take home with him. He enjoyed learning about the world outside of Imerina, and had a love of almanacs and encyclopedias.

Malumba's family was left temporarily homeless after artillery fire during the Franco-Merina War had destroyed his home. While his father and brothers constructed a new house, Tšepo lived with a friend of his, Nyakallo Tsimundu. The two would end up forming a friendship that would last their entire lives. Malumba would marry Tsimundu's older sister Amuotoa.

When the Japanese Empire invaded Imerina in 1901, Malumba was conscripted into the royal army. However he would not see any military action against the Japanese. After Imerina's conquest, Malumba fled into the eastern mountains, where for several months he lived as a hermit in a cave. He would later make contact with his wife, as well as Nyakallo, and relocate to Bawgayo, a secluded community in the mountains.

Rise in Politics

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In Bawgayo, Malumba would begin to form his political ideology. The village had been a refuge for Akaran intellectuals since the late 1800s, and despite its small size, had a large, well stocked library. Malumba would begin to read the writings of Marx, Voltaire, and Locke, all of which would have a significant impact on his views. It was in Bawgayo that Malumba would meet revolutionaries such as Letsoalo Mukulu, Katleho Ntepula, and Yohannes Nsanga. In that village they would form the Akaran independence movement, based on the ideals of popular sovereignty and self determination.

Malumba, along with Tsimundu and Ntepula, established the Black Star Herald in 1910, as a newspaper targeted towards the colony's native population. It was initially written in Akaran, however colonial officials forced the Herald to later be written in Japanese. Using the printing presses they acquired for the Herald, the group would start another newspaper in 1915, Akaran Spring. This clandestine newspaper was written solely in the Akaran language, and contained pro-independence messages and propaganda. However, when Japanese authorities traced the Akaran Spring back to the Black Star Herald, the trio was arrested.

Malumba spent three years as a political prisoner before he was released in 1921. While imprisoned he converted to Christianity, as was popular among many Akaran nationalists at the time. Unlike others, who converted to Greek Orthodoxy as did the Merina monarchs, Malumba did not proscribe to any specific denomination. When he returned home, he discovered his wife, along with their son, had left him out of fear of backlash from colonial authorities. Malumba for a time spiraled into depression, and became an alcoholic and cocaine addict. He was arrested again for public indecency due to his alcoholism, but released after a few months.

Following his second release from prison, Malumba went to live with Tsimundu, who was suffering similar problems. In order to distract himself from his depression, Malumba began dedicating more time to the Akaran independence movement. In 1923, the movement was formalized as the Party for Complete Akaran Independence. Through communication networks the revolutionaries of Bawgayo had established in the decades prior, the party quickly recruited many members. New revolutionaries such as Khabane Mundela, Molaheli Ratsifa, Diboko Ndaye, and Count Aseffe Fenade became prominent member of the party, and joined Malumba's entourage. Malumba began seeking diplomatic support from other black-nationalist and independence movements across the world. While a member of the party, he made contact with independence movements in Korea, civil rights groups in the United States, and anti-colonial parties in mainland Africa.

However, as the party grew internal struggles became more ripe. There was a significant divide between political ideology, mainly split between the radical communists and centrists. Malumba, although a socialists, was opposed to the Soviet-style governance which the communists supported, and became a prominent, although oddball, leader of the centrist faction. There was also a major debate over whether independence should be achieved through peaceful demonstration or armed insurrection. Malumba was largely a pacifist, and opposed the creation of the party's armed wing, the Akaran Revolutionary Guard. Political strife worsened in 1928 when Count Fenade and his supporters split from the party, forming their own. Fenade's new ideology, Voatism, was largely based on the fascist regime of Italy, and was a stark contrast to the more leftist ideologies found within the PCAI. This emboldened the communist faction to split from the party later that year, forming the Communist Independence Party of Akara.

The split of the communist and fascist portions of the PCAI threatened the overall security of the party. It did not take long before the two groups had turned their attention away from the Japanese and towards each other, and soon communist and fascist paramilitaries were fighting in the streets of Madagascar's cities. After the 1930 Antsirabe Massacre, the colonial government began a crackdown on the independence movements. The communist party was dissolved after Japanese police raided their headquarters in Fianarantsoa, and the Voatists were forced into hiding after the assassination of Fenade. This police action stirred up the militarization debate in the PCAI even more, and many of Malumba's pacifist supporters began switching over to support an armed revolution as the only means of independence.

On June 5th, 1932, rogue members of the Akaran Revolutionary Guard bombed a colonial administrative office in Antsirabe. Of the terrorists, Esaia Raharisaina, was arrested, and after being tortured confessed the location of the PCAI headquarters in Bawgayo. Two days later, Japanese authorities stormed the village, killing many members of the Revolutionary Guard. Malumba was arrested and imprisoned on the island of Nosy Boraha. His opposition to the militarization of the PCAI was the only thing that spared him execution. Some of his colleagues, such as Ratsifa and Mukulu were not so lucky. Ironically, the Siege of Bawgayo would change Mulumba's opinion on how independence would be achieved, and he began to see an armed uprising as the only possible method for Akara's independence.

Malumba would be released ten years later, after Akaishima fell to British military occupation during WWII. He was hailed as a hero by the Akaran people, and a small parade was held in Toamasina to mark his return to the mainland. The PCAI was reformed with Malumba as its chairman, now headquartered in Hanariv. However, Malumba would spend much of his time in Antsirabe, seeking to get a formal education from the University. He kept close contact with Sir Edgar Tannenbay, the British military governor, as they discussed the plans for Akara's independence once World War II ended. He also was in contact with Iseri Sumitomo, an influential leader of the colony's Japanese settler population, as they both were concerned on how their two populations would interact with each other and the government once independence was achieved.

While Malumba was initially an avid supporter of the Allied Occupation, he began to grow wary of the British when Tannenbay was replaced by Sir William Bennet. Unlike Tannenbay, Bennet was reluctant to speak with Malumba, and more worryingly, would not give a definite answer on whether or not Akara would be given its independence following World War II. As a precaution, Malumba began secretly organizing a militia, armed with leftover Japanese equipment which they had stockpiled.

Christmas Uprising and Independence

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Malumba's fears grew once World War II ended. While Japan had surrendered, Madagascar was not given its independence, instead it was treated as a part of the Japanese Empire that was under British Military Administration. It became known that this was due to the British government being unsure on whether to give the colony its independence, as they were now considering the possibility of annexing it. Malumba called for an emergency meeting of the PCAI, to which there was a near unanimous decision that military action should be taken against the Allied occupation if necessary. On New Years Day, 1946, a massive protest by the PCAI began outside the Royal Palace of Tana.

On Orthodox Christmas day of January 7th, 1946, the PCAI protests in Tana turned into a violent riot after British soldiers fired upon the demonstrators, killing 35. Upon hearing the news, the PCAI chose to to commence military action against the British. Malumba was declared President of the Akaran Free State, and the Free Akaran Army attacked a British military camp at Tolondarary. The rebellion began in the eastern mountains, and in a matter of days, the Free Akaran Army had taken control of most of the eastern jungles. Malumba gained international attention when the Free Akaran Army captured Toamasina in a single day, humiliating the larger British forces and capturing the deputy military governor Sir Royce Claymoore. Malumba, who had little military experience, delegated most military authority to Lord Yohannes Anta, a member of the native aristocracy who had received military training in Tokyo. Malumba instead dedicated himself to the civil aspects of the rebellion, organizing the distribution of food and broadcasting speeches over the radio. It was during this time that he earned the moniker "Tata (father) Tšepo". On October 28th, 1946, he traveled to Hanariv, the historic capital, upon its capture by the Free Akaran Army.

After the capture of Tana, the British began to take the Christmas rebellion more seriously, and sent in 34,000 soldiers From South Africa, Rhodesia, and East Africa to assist in putting down the rebellion. Bombing campaigns were able to weaken the rebel's control of major cities, and Hanariv eventually fell back into British hands. However, the mountains and the jungles of the east still largely remained under rebel control, as the Free Akaran Army was able to wage a guerrilla war against the British there. In Europe, Malumba was seen as a terrorist, however he was hailed as an anti-colonial hero throughout Africa and the African diaspora. He even gained some sympathy from United States President Harry S Truman, who called Malumba a "freedom fighter" and urged British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to try to resolve things peacefully.

On February 12th, 1947, the British took Toamasina through a series of bombings and naval landings. The loss of the Akaran Free State's de facto capital, along with the deaths of many of its prominent politicians and military leaders, effectively brought the rebellion to an end. The Free Akaran Army scattered, and Malumba was once again arrested, this time by British authorities. A resistance movement, known as the Malumbists, would rise up, however they mainly operated through sabotage and ambushes, and never gained hold of any territory.

Despite the Lehabela Uprising's failure to immediately establish Akaran independence, it forced the British to abandon their plans of annexing Madagascar, and accepting that they would soon need to give the colony independence. This was achieved on May 3rd 1947, one day after Malumba was released from prison. The new independent nation, the Kingdom of Madagascar/

Leadership

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Malumba became the first Prime Minister of Akara on May 24th, 1956. He had an immense amount of support from the Asan and Sakalava, however much less from the Japanese and Merina populations, who were worried that his socialist views would be detrimental to their businesses and were bitter that he had ended their hegemony. Malumba however, decided to advocate for a gradual implementation of democratic socialism, and began to introduce new laws meant to promote equality. He introduced a steep progressive tax, which largely affected many of the wealthy settlers and native aristocracy. Using the funds gained from taxes, he began to invest in education and infrastructure. A state-run public school system was reestablished, as the one run by the colonial administration had ceased operations since Allied occupation began. He nationalized several mines and quarries across the country, whose Japanese owners had abandoned them when they fled back to their home country. These mines were run as collective cooperatives overseen by the government. There was also a push made to establish collectivized farms and plantations, however these were largely a failure, as most of the experienced farmers decided to work in private industry.

Malumba also introduced many social reforms in the country. He banned all forced and unpaid labor, even as criminal punishment. A person's caste was no longer listed on any legal documents, which considerably helped diminish discrimination against people of the Andevo caste, which was traditionally reserved for slaves. Malumba was also a staunch supporter of women's rights, and quickly amended Akara's constitution to give women equal suffrage. Malumba also introduced other reforms which made it easier to obtain a divorce and for women to testify against a man in court. He also struck down proposed legislation to limit how short a woman's skirt could be, calling it "silly, childish, and outdated".

Malumba sought close relations with Ethiopia and Liberia, two other independent nations in Africa. He was one of the first world leaders to condemn apartheid, stating it was "an evil going against the will of both God and man". While a socialist, Malumba did not seek ties with the Soviet Union, which he viewed as tyrannical and oppressive. Likewise, he also gave diplomatic support to South Korea during the Korean War, and sent an expeditionary force of around 1,000 soldiers to the peninsula to assist the United Nation. Malumba had mixed relations with the United States. While the Americans enjoyed his denouncing of the Soviet Union, and had supported him during his uprising against the British, they were still wary of his socialist ideology.

There were tensions between Akara's King Senaso I and Malumba. Malumba was a socialist and a republican, and his Akaran Free State had rebelled against the Merina monarchy in addition to British and Japanese rule. Malumba saw Senaso as too much of a puppet to foreign powers, especially due to the latters cooperation with the Japanese rule. Senaso saw Malumba as a troublemaker, and was worried his socialist policies would invoke the wrath of the United States. While only a constitutional monarch, Senaso often took action to counter Malumba's socialism, even so far as to order Akara's military intervention in the Korean War.

Later Life

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After his All People's Revolution Party lost the 1952 election to Sakaria Moreri's Social Democratic Party, Malumba retired from politics. He spent most of his time in his time in his home in Hanariv, reconnecting with his son and grandchildren. Neighbors noted that Malumba was a usually cheery man, who enjoyed birdwatching and playing chess with strangers. He declined an offer by Prime Minister Moreri to serve as an Ambassador to Liberia, stating "I'm done with politics now, I believe it's your generation's turn to pave the future of this country."

When Akara's Civil War broke out in 1955, the Communist forces contacted Malumba asking his support, expecting a fellow socialist to be behind their cause. However, Malumba responded by calling them "no good ruffians", and reaffirming that his support for socialism was only for the democratic kind. He subsequently voiced support for the government and Prime Minister Moreri.

When Moreri was overthrown in a coup in 1956, Malumba spoke out against the military junta, which he denounced as fascistic. General Gabriel Artevi, leader of the junta, realized that Malumba could easily become a rival or at the very least, a threat to his regime. Once again Malumba found himself arrested and imprisoned, this time on the island of Nosy Mitsio. Many of Malumba's longtime colleagues, such as Mundela, Ntepula, and his closest friend Tsimundu were executed by the Artevi regime. Major Yohannes Kimo, whom Artevi had appointed Minister of State Security, planned to execute Malumba as well, however Artevi intervened to prevent this. While imprisoned Malumba health began to fail as he began to become senile. His guards noted that he would often talk to hallucinations he had of fellow revolutionaries, many of whom were dead. He often mistook a young guard, Thebasi Ndaye, for Nyakallo Tsimundu. The guards would often play along with Malumba's hallucinations, and generally treated him decently. giving him pillows, extra blankets, and books, luxuries not available to the other prisoners. Malumba died in his sleep on August 12th, 1962, his body discovered by the guards the next morning.

Upon the orders of Artevi, Malumba was given a state funeral, and his funeral procession closed off major streets in Hanariv. He was buried in a mausoleum constructed over the ruins of Bawgayo, alongside the reinterred bodies of Tsimundu, Ntepula, and Ratsifa. Artevi expressed regret for keeping Malumba imprisoned until his death, saying "It is unfitting that a man who spent his life fighting for freedom die imprisoned."

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For & Against

• For: Democratic Socialism, Social Democracy, Pan-Africanism, African Nationalism, Feminism, Racial Equality, Collectivism, Non-Aligned Movement, Women's Suffrage, Birth Control, Globalism, Internationalism, Progressive Politics, Non-denominational Christianity, Republicanism

• Against: Stalinism, Fascism, Colonialism, Imperialism, Racism, Sexism, Excessive Militarism, Feudalism, Anarcho-Communism, Apartheid, Absolute Monarchy

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